A Model of Image Creation and Image Transfer

Today, although still playing a pocketable percentage of the everywhere in all in all promotional budget, the outgo of rumination dollars for keep goingship castles Is growing rapidly (Parker, 1991 Candler and Shank, 1989 Scott and Chard, 1992). non alone be todays garterships to a crackinger ex ten dollar billt innovative (I. E. , to a greater extent than simply the donation of cash for pil depletedcase harvestion scarce just about degradeds atomic number 18 expecting a reasonable transcend on their sponsorship dollar in the spirt of increased gross revenue (Octahedron and vanguard Kirk, 1992). dapple firms commemorate into sponsorship arrangements with a variety of goals, two of the most(prenominal) important ar to increase dirt knowingness and to establish, strengthen, or change soil lineament Crowley, 1991 Marshall and Cook, 1992 Meghan, 1991 Memorable blue-green . , 1991). Recently, these goals capture a bun in the oven been mull overd to be im portant in the development of customer- base crisscross equity, destined as the variantial exploit of bell ringer connectedness on the consumers purchase decision (Keller, 1993).In Sellers conceptualization, disgracemark knowledge (which drives customer-based blur equity) Is a sound of both the consumers aw beness of the daub and the envision(s) associate degreed with that aw arness. In item, the variability, strength, and unparalleledness of the brand familiaritys play a critical mapping in find out the differential response (Keller, 1993, p. 8). Brand awareness is achieved by exposing the brand to as galore(postnominal) electromotive force consumers as possible (Asker, 1 991 ).Sponsorship proceedingivities present twofold opportunities for achieving awareness objectives, and untold of the explore to Image creation gravel 145 worldwide trade Re observe, Volvo. 14 No. 3, 1997, up. 145-158. MAC university press, 0265-1335 multinational market Review d ate in the sponsorship literary productions has foc employ on awareness restitutions much(prenominal)(prenominal) as sponsor recall (e. G. McDaniel and Kinney, 1996). Regrettably, little attention has been precondition to showcase and brand get a line issues.A human activity of questions exist regarding the effect of sponsorship promotional activities on brand and sol express build. For example What promoters contribute to an final results cypher? Do consumers associate an slipfaces stunt man with sponsoring brands? If at that place is an work out connection mingled with outcome and sponsor, is on that point a theoretical explanation that cigarette be apply to chthonicstand this gene plug inage? If there is an figure association in the midst of burden and sponsor, what factors watch (strengthen or weaken) this blood? How does sheathface theatrical role find out stance towards the brand? Although attempts at measuring the feed on the sponsorsh ip investment return been do (e. G. , total answer attendance, exit polls, sales fol starting the proceeds, and arrive of media mentions), an understanding of how sponsorship whole kit and boodle has yet to be developed (Octahedron and Van Kirk, 1992 Cavalry et al. , 1994 Memorable teal . , 1991 Parker, 1991). The utilization of this article is to present a set explaining the mechanisms by which brand fount whitethorn be squeeze by sponsorship activities.Specifically, skeleton on the theory of subject matter infrequency from the credit endorsement literature, a eccentric person is presented which suggests the factors involved in creating an topics doubling and the sequent carry-over of that show to the sponsoring brand. Further much than than, virtually(prenominal) factors are determine that whitethorn declare the birth betwixt detail see and brand part. While the focus of this article is on the conceptual development of moving picture conveyancin g in sponsorship, a variety of look into propositions are offered to guide future confirmable inquiry.A textile for the bump off of situation date Model conceptualization and overview Brand foresee has been defined as knowledges about brand as reflected by the brand associations held in keeping (Keller, 1993, p. 3). Keller suggests that the variability, laughableness, and strength of the associations are critical to a brands success. Brand associations are developed from a variety of setoffs including product use, in arrangemental sources (e. G. , advertising, packaging, word-of-mouth), and association with former(a)(a) entities.The association with separate entities source is of point relevance to sponsorship activity. Keller has suggested that when a brand get under ones skins associated with an take, nearly of the associations linked with the font (e. . , youthful, relaxing, enjoyable, disappointing, sophisticated, elite, etc.tera ) whitethorn become linked in memory board with the brand. This interchange of associations is reconciled with enquiry in the famous person endorsement subprogram. Initial query regarding credit endorsement cogitate on the credibility and seductiveness of the content source (I. E. Celebrity) to explain the persuasive disposition of endorsers. That is, to a greater extent than(prenominal) credible and attractive endorsers were viewed as more persuasive. However, McCracken (1989), pointing to strange research results, suggested that endorsement authorisation is better explained by the gists consumers associate with the eminence endorser and subsequently transpose to the brand. McCracken uses the marge nub to describe consumers overall assessments of what a famous person trifles based on counterblasts sunbathe as social class, gender, age, personality Ana Testily. In separate characteristics (e. . , regal, trashy, maleness, vigorous, caring, sexual, irreverent, wise) are integrated to def ine the heart of the celebrity. Meaning which has been accumulated by dint of and through their roles in television, movies, military, athletics, ND other careers is conception to reside in celebrities (McCracken, 1989, p. 315). According to McCracken, the meaning attributed to celebrities moves from the celebrity endorser to the product when the two are paired in an publicizing. That is, meanings associated with the celebrity become associated with the product in the look of the consumer.To complete the meaning transportation system process, consumers fuck off the meaning in the product through consumption. This process is illustrated in guess 1. 147 Figure 1 . Meaning movement in the endorsement process McCracken (1989) meaning in celebrities is uniform to Sellers (1993) impression associations. Following the multitude set forward by Keller with bring up to brand characterization, this article uses the term effect run into to represent the cumulative explanation o f meanings or associations attributed to matters by consumers.A comparison contribute be luckn amid celebrity endorsers and egresss. Just as consumers associate celebrities with genuine meanings, so too are offsprings associated with particular proposition attributes and postures. It is suggested here that these associations are derived from the founts display case, pillowcase characteristics, and several(prenominal) single consumer factors. This is not unlike the meaning attributed to a celebrity universe organise by the various roles he or she occupies.For example, pillowcase associations attributed to the annual Chicago blue Festival (a food and musical mimicry drawing over 500,000 people) might admit tradition, celebration and civic pride. Extending this concept of meaning transfer from the celebrity endorser literature, it is suggested that solvents act in a manner analogous to endorsers in the transfer of go out to sponsoring brands. The framework presented in Figure 2 theorizes from McCracken celebrity endorsement seat to suggest that International Marketing Review 14,3 148 Figure 2.A case of image creation and image transfer in concomitant sponsorship offspring image is make from a number of international and internal factors. by means of sponsorship, an situations image, which whitethorn be relatively distinct for different consumer groups, whitethorn be transferred through association to the sponsoring product. As indicated in the figure, several factors whitethorn moderate the strength of this image transfer. This watchword leans to the crack of the first research proposition Pl Through sponsorship, an final results image actt become associated with the sponsoringDragon s Image. Determinants of aftermath image An answers image is equal by a particular food market segments overall subjective eruditions of the activity. The pro stupefyd framework suggests leash factors that whitethorn jolt angiotensin conv erting enzymes sensing of a particular government issue event type, event characteristics, and individual factors. detail type . In accordance with the earlier definition, event type do-nothing be categorized into at least five areas sports cogitate, music related, fete/fair related, fine arts related (e. G. Ballet, art exhibit, theatre, etc. ), and professional coming together/trade show related. The type of event pertains event image in a variety of ways. First, it conjures up image associations in the mind of the consumer. That is, most individuals, through late(prenominal) patronage or other forms of delineation (word-of-mouth, television, etc. ) ordain develop slightly bearings (I. E. , positive or prohibit predispositions towards an event) regarding particular events. These perspectives allow for serve to frame the image of the particular event type.Note however, that ones attitude towards an event is only one part of an events image. Ones attitude towards an ev ent represents a summary of mystifys resulting in well-nigh mineral predisposition to move to an event in a systematically favorable or unfavorable manner. Thus, event attitude is an enduring valuation (Cohen, 1990). While an events image pass on be potently turnd by ones attitude towards the event, event image depart besides be jounceed by non-evaluative perceptions of an event that are form through associations held in the consumers memory (Keller, 1993).In this sense, event image reflects the meaning of the event for an individual, and peck be characterized using descriptive labels that represent a summation of ones perceptions. These labels, termed image associations, would allow youthful, mature, carefree, adventurous, educational, social, handed-down, undivided, common, liberal, conservative, steep class, family oriented, children oriented, cerebral, athletic, artistic, pride, semipolitical, etc. Thus, event image merchantman be thought of as a collection of image associations.In supplement to prehistorical populates and other indirect impressions, it is probably that sassy experiences bequeath make out ones perception of event image. In fact, image perceptions formed from the most recent event experiences forget probable be the most potent in shaping ones overall event image receptions (Baggage and Warsaw, 1990). New experiences tail be divided into two types the specific activities prosecute in or sight and all interactions with other event concomitants/participants and event staff.It is through these two experiences that past event images whitethorn be changed or modified and new image associations potbelly be added. The specific activities engaged in or observed whitethorn be the alike for all participantsl (e. G. , attendees at a soccer match) or quite varied (e. G. , the individual rides and attractions selected at a local festival), depending on the type of event. Regardless of the affinity of experiences, the essential issue is that a effrontery consumers specific event experiences or observations give shape their perceptions of event image.It is also argued here that the number and type of other participants depart harbour an impact on ones evaluation of the events image. For example, the number of spectators whitethorn impact ones assessment of the success of the event. peradventure events may be viewed as more successful when they draw more attendees. In Alton, ten under AT participants may Impact perceptions AT crowding, event availability, and clutches times. Type of participant represents the demographic and cryptologic characteristics of others attending the event.The attendees at near events represent relatively homogeneous market segments in terms of social class, family life cycle, age, gender, political affiliation, etc. For example, spectators of professional golf tournaments may be middle aged, white males, with advanceder up median incomes. In other cases, e vents draw heterogeneous types of participants. Just as other customers can sire a developed impact on consumers perceptions of service firms, so too can other participants have an impact on ones event experiences and boon assessment of event image (Bitter et al. , 1994).These factors, perceptions based on past experiences, event activities, and the number and type of spectator/participant, constitute one aspect that testament serve to shape consumers overall subjective perceptions of a given event. Based on the above discussion, several research propositions are suggested 149 International Marketing Review 14,3 150 App Direct experience and/or indirect culture (word-of-mouth, advertising, etc. ) with an event type bequeath influence event image. bar The specific activities undergo or observed during an event will influence event image.PC The number and type of other spectators/participants will influence event image. font characteristics. Within a given event type (e. G. , music plan series, trade show, etc. ), a number of characteristics will leave from event to event. The take aim of the following five event characteristics will potential influence consumers perceptions of an events overall image event size, professional stead of participants (professional or amateur), tradition/ annals associated with the event, event venue, and promotional coming into court.Event size can be turn overed a farsighted a number of dimensions, including Engel of event, level of media exposure (local, regional, national, international), number of performers (if applicable), and amount of physical office occupied. The same type of event, for example electronic industry trade shows, can vary on all of these dimensions, creating different images for the same event type. Likewise, other event characteristics much(prenominal) as the professional status of performers (professional versus amateur) or the venue in which the event is re-create (e. . , temperature, con venience, physical condition, etc. ) will impact ones overall assessment of the events image. One could theorize that, in most cases, perceptions of quality, legitimacy, and attendance zing will be graduate(prenominal)er with long running, hulky, elaborately staged events, featuring professionals in attractive and convenient venues. The sensed promotional appearance of a brands sponsorship activities may appear anyplace along a spectrum from advertiser to benefactor.A perception towards the benefactor end of the spectrum may lead to increased recoverings of goodwill towards the brand because it is sensed as donating funds to make the event possible (McDonald, 1 ) conversely, tanner may De a negative reaction to ten Americanization of events that have not been sponsored in the past. These events may be perceived as sell out to the corporate world. This has become especially consecutive in the Arts, where some individuals feel that sponsorship (corporate or governmental) of th e Arts leads to censorship Jacobson, 1993 Wood, 1996) .However, repayable to increasing costs, it has become even more critical for events to obtain outside sponsors in order to continue to exist. To take adequate advantage of the goodwill aspects, the sponsoring brand may need to educate attendees regarding the beneficial role sponsorship plays in event production. Due to its association with the event, a sponsoring brands promotional claims can be legitimated, which serves to increase the believability of the promotional message (McDonald, 1991). Additionally, a sponsoring firm may be perceived as making an event possible for the consumer (Chew, 1992 McDonald, 1991).The perception may be especially plastered for small events which often have difficulty securing financial support. In this sense, the consumer does not view the sponsorship as a form of promotion, but rather the sponsoring brand is seen as providing a service to the attendee and a level of dowdily is generated by the firm. Again, the skepticism that can be associated with traditional advertising may be circumvented. Brands that are viewed as benefactors will be seen in a more favorable light. The consumer may even feel the need or desire to reciprocate by purchasing the brand.Following from the above discussion, the following research propositions are suggested App Event size will influence event image. Pub Professional status of participants will influence event image. PC Tradition/history associated with the event will influence event image. puff up Event venue will influence event image. Pee Promotional appearance will influence event image. Individual factors. Because of the knock overable number of factors influencing event image and the unique manner in which participants may take in those factors, an event may have different images for different individuals. Qualitative research has revealed all(prenominal) sport to have its own individual image, and sponsors will tend to benefi t from image transfer accordingly (Parker, 1991, p. 26). Three individual factors are suggested here that may impact event image the number of images an individual associates with an vent the strength of the particular image and the past history one has with a specific event. This last factor differs from the past experience factor discussed under event type. by history refers to the unique experiences associated with a specific event, whereas past experiences refers to encounters with a general event type.Events that consumers perceive as having multiple images will be more difficult to associate with a single identity. This will be compounded when the meanings are of a conflicting nature. Thus, an individual with many event associations may have a hafting image of the event, depending on which association is currently most salient. related to this is that images can be precise strong or relatively weak. It is likely that a single strong image will dominate over several weaker on es. This will cause an event Image to De pursuant(predicate) over time, out Limits ten reality Tanat multiple Image associations would confer.Finally, an individuals personal history with a particular event may have an impact on ones perception of an events image. A long history will typically lead to a more ingrained and consistent image. An individual that has attend or has been associated with an event for a tangible time period may also have nostalgic feelings that become associated with the events image. Events that have multiple or vague images pose problems for a firms sponsorship selection decision because it becomes more difficult to predict the image that may become associated with the event, and ultimately transferred to the product.The above discussion leads to the following research propositions App Individuals associating an event with a large number of images will have difficulty identifying a consistent event image. 151 International Marketing Review 14,3 152 Pub Individuals with a single, strong image association will have consistent event images over time. PC Individuals with a single, strong image association will have less rich event images. Pad Individuals with long-term participation in an event will hold a consistent event image for that event.This section has identified tether broad areas (event type, event characteristics, and individual factors) that influence the creation of an events image, although there may be some event image causal factors not explicitly discussed in the foregoing section. It is likely that any unrepresented actors could be accommodated inwardly the proposed areas. The next section discusses constructs that may moderate the blood mingled with event image and brand image. Moderating variables in the simulation Potential hash out variables presented in the nonplus are discussed in two sections.In the first section variables potentially impacting the strength of the image transfer from event to brand a re discussed. As such, variables pertaining to the formation of strong memory associations (degree of relation) and exposure to the sponsors message (level of sponsorship and event frequency) are discussed. The help section on moderating rabbles examines how ones fight with a product may moderate the impact of the events image on brand attitude. Attitude towards the event and attitude towards the brand are conceptualized and discussed as being elements of event image and brand image, respectively.Although not illustrated in Figure 2, these attitude components should be considered as a part of from all(prenominal) one of the respective image boxes in the figure. Moderators surrounded by event image and brand image This section will discuss three moderating variables impacting the strength of the transfer among an events image and the image of a sponsoring brand. As indicated above, the basis of the relationship is the meaning transfer among these constructs and it is this pr ocess that the moderating variables are proposed to influence.The first moderating factor to be discussed in the image transfer process is the degree of similarity amongst the event Ana ten sponsor. A product can nave letter Atonally or Image related similarity with an event. Functional similarity drop deads when a sponsoring product is actually used by participants during the event. An example of this type of similarity is Valentines sponsorship of automobile racing. The link is established because, apart room being a sponsor, Valentines take oil products are actually used by many of the participants during the event.The second type of similarity is termed image related, and occurs when the image of the event is related to the image of the brand. An example of this type of linkage is Pepsins sponsorship of the 1993 Michael Jackson World plan Tour. Here the similarity comes from the youth and fervor orientation of both the music and the product. Interestingly, some sponsors d o not appear to be linked to the events they sponsor. For example, the USAF&G scar Bowl combined a large insurance firm with a collegial football game.It is suggested here that either useful or image based similarities forge stronger ties and help the consumer to link the event image with the brand. Thus, sponsor- event similarity (functional or image based) will enhance image transfer by more firmly anchoring the relationship in the consumers mind. This assertion is consistent with some celebrity endorsement literature which suggests that MIS-matches between endorser and brand decrease the force of the endorsement (Katie, 1987). A second factor that may moderate the image transfer from event to sponsoring brand is the level of sponsorship.Sponsorship arrangements can run the gamut from a single sponsor to hundreds of sponsors at many different levels. duple sponsors for a given event lessens the prospect that a particular brand will be associated with the event, due to the add itional stimuli each consumer must attend to and recall (Hutchinson and Alba, 1991). Often, events allowing multiple sponsors will offer different levels of sponsorship. By contributing different dollar amounts to the event, the sponsor can buy enhanced packages. These enhancements complicate better sign/banner location, more public media mentions, and premium kicked and hospitality packages.Exclusive sponsorship, or at least a rife position, will increase the likelihood of meaning transfer from the event to the sponsoring brand by more firmly establishing the link between event and brand. The frequency of the event will also have an impact on the image transfer process. Events may be on either a one-time or recurring basis. Although a onetime event does not allow recurring event-sponsor associations to be developed over time, some events may be of such a unique nature that they attract a great deal of media attention (e. G. , Hands-Across-America). However, an ongoing event (ann ual, semi-annual, monthly, etc. Should have the benefit of more firmly establishing a link between the event and the brand due to reiterate exposures (Manacling et al. , 1991). The above discussion leads to the following research propositions App The higher the degree of similarity (image or functional based) between event and sponsoring brand, the more utile the image transfer between event and brand. Pub The more exclusive the level of sponsorship, the more effective the image transfer between event and brand. PC The more frequent the event, the more effective the image transfer between event ND brand.Image creation m Ode I 153 Moderators between event image and attitude towards the brand As discussed previously, ones attitude towards the event will help to shape ones image of the event. Thus, event attitude is a component of event image. Likewise, attitude towards the brand is considered under this framework as a International Marketing Review 14,3 154 component of brand image. Indeed, recent conceptualizations of brand image overwhelm an attitude component (Keller, 1993). As such, the homunculus presented in Figure 2 suggests that event image will have an impact on attitude towards the brand.However, might there be situations in which this relationship is moderated by another factor? Advertising research with endorsers has demonstrated that product fight level (defined as the level of personal relevance a product has to a consumer, resulting from the perceived level of risk associated with the products consumption or non-consumption) can impact the attitude formation process (Petty et al. , 1983). Specifically, we have shown that when an advertisement annoyance a product of low involvement, the celebrity status of the product endorsers was a very potent determinant of attitudes about the product.When the advertisement concerned a product of high involvement, however, the celebrity status of the product endorsers had no effect on attitudes, but the hardship of the information about the product contained in the ad was a powerful determinant of product evaluations (Petty et al. , 1983, p. 143). Following from this research, level of product involvement should moderate the relationship between event image and attitude towards the brand, such that event image will have a larger impact on brand attitude for a low involvement product.The influence of event image on brand attitude can be understood further by considering the type of horizon process likely to occur. Petty and Capacious (1986) elaboration likelihood seat (ELM) suggests that persuasion can occur along two highways. The central pathway to persuasion occurs when an individual bases product evaluation on diligent consideration of information that a person feels is central to the true merits of an issue or product (Petty et al. , 1983, p. 144).The second street to attitude change, peripheral, suggests that change may also occur through the association of the object wit h positive or negative cues (e. G. , expert source, pleasant surroundings, forceful presentation, etc. ). This conceptualization of the peripheral persuasion way is consistent with Sellers (1993) position of links in memory being established between an event and the sponsor. One characteristic of sponsorship that distinguishes it from some other promotional methods is its indirect nature (McDonald, 1991).That is, the sponsorship is, at best, a secondary concern (behind the actual event) for the participant. Furthermore, other than the brands name and/or logo, seldom is any type of moneymaking(prenominal) message associated with the firms products. Thus, sponsorship would appear to operate along Petty and Capacious peripheral persuasion route due to this indirect nature, and drop AT available cognizant International. place tests AT ten ELM mold suggest Tanat ten central route to persuasion is more effective for high involvement goods, while the peripheral route has a higher impa ct on low involvement goods (Petty et al. , 1983).Theorizing from the ELM, one could purpose that when the sponsoring brand is a low involvement product, event image will be a potent force in determining brand attitude. Conversely, the promotional benefit, in terms of attitude change, for high involvement products appears to be small. Product involvement is only likely to be applicable when the sponsorship is focused at the brand level, as oppose to the sponsorship focus being at the firm level. The discussion in this section gives hop on to the following research propositions App Brand attitudes of low involvement goods will be powerfully influenced by event image.Pub Brand attitudes of high involvement goods will be unaccented influenced by event image. PC view processes from event sponsorship take place on the peripheral route. Implications for drill and research Implications for practice Several implications for marketing practice can be drawn from the proposed model. Firs t, firms should consider more than simply the number of potential customers their sponsorship signage and other identifiers will reach. It is important to consider the image of the event, as this image may become associated with the brand.An events image can be assessed through a variety of methods. However, given its potentially ambiguous and transitory nature, qualitative methods in the form of depth interviews, focus groups, and projective techniques, are likely to provide the best view of how consumers perceive a given event. Event organizers might take it on themselves to manage such studies and use the results to recruit potential sponsors. In the course of such research, event organizers may find that the image of their event is not what they thought.Furthermore, it would be wise for event image studies to take place on a regular basis to assess changes in event image over time. This would allow event organizers to take disciplinary action in a apropos manner. The proposed model suggests a variety of event image determinants that could be manipulated to position a given event in a different light. In terms of the sponsoring rand, the model suggests several aspects of sponsorship that should be considered when deciding on potential event affiliations.One aspect that should be considered, in light of image transfer benefits, is the degree of similarity between the event and the brand. Brand awareness benefits are likely to accrue regardless of similarity levels, but it has been argued here that image associations will be more likely when some link exists, either image or functional, in the consumers mind. Firms looking to add sponsorship activities to their promotional conflate should also consider the level of pensioners and frequency of the event.Although most firms will look at these aspects with an eye towards the total dollar commitment, it may also be wise to consider the meaning transfer implications. As discussed previously, exclusive sponsors hips in events occurring on a frequent basis will likely increase the image transfer potential of the sponsorship purchase. Finally, firms should consider whether image transfer benefits will actually have any influence on consumers attitudes towards their brand and ultimately their purchase intention. The model suggests that, in terms of impacting a